Loading…
Reload document 
Open in new tab PRODUCTIVE SKILLS:
*A basic methodology model for teaching productive
skills:
1- Lead-in stage:
2- Set the task
3- Monitor the task
4- Task feedback
5- Task-related follow up
*The Language Issues (Problem) for PRODUCTIVE
Skills:
For productive skills, learners may have problems of
vocabulary and grammar. There are a number of steps we
can take which will help students achieve success:
1- Supply key language
Teach key vocabulary before the activity—more exposure
and practice!
2- Plan activities in advance
Plan production activities!
*PROJECTS for PRODUCTIVE Skills:
For children produce their own booklets, computer
based materials, cookbooks, etc.
It helps to skill integration and information gathering!!!
Projects for EFL/ ESL class newspaper, brochures,
prepare for a debate, etc…
Steps for project work:
1- The briefing/ the choice:
Decide on topic!(the choice)
Decide aims of the project, ways of gathering data,
timescale of project! (the briefing)
2- idea/ language generation:
What is going into their project?
What they have to find out?
Where they can find that info?
3- Data Gathering:
-gather data from the sources
-they can design questionnaires
-they can interview
-use internet, books
-watch TV programmes, listen to radio
4- Planning:
Make a plan of how the final project will be set out
5- Drafting and Editing
6- The Result
7- consultation/ tutorial
webquest project:
Allows teachers to get their students to do research from
the comfort of a computer terminal.
A.SPEAKING:
*CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH PRODUCTION:
Essentially linear; it takes place in real time
Each utterance is dependent on the preceding one;
therefore, it is spontaneous /contingent
Un/planned
the planning time is really limited
Elliptical
Use of pronouns
Deictic expressions (this/that/here/there/now/then)
Use of simplified structure
Use of formulaic expressions
Use of fillers and hesitation devices
*TYPES OF ORAL LANGUAGE:
Participation
Interactive ( multi-party speech)
Non-interactive (monologue)
Planning
Unplanned
Planned
Purpose
Interpersonal
Transacti
***On the basis of these criteria, we can classify speaking
genres according to their general purposes, the kind of
participation they involve, and the degree of planning. For
example:
*SPEECH PRODUCTION :
What is involved in speech production process?
1) CONCEPTUALIZATION
Decide what to say.
Think about the utterance;
its discourse type;
its topic
its purpose.
2) FORMULATION
Formulate the ideas
Making strategic choices at the level of ;
o Discourse (script)
o Syntax
o Vocabulary
o Grammar (Add-on Strategy)
o Pragmatics (extra decisions
at the pragmatic level)
3)ARTICULATION
Producing the sounds
Processes of loudness, pitch direction
Pausing
Production of meaningful utterances
How do we correct the mistakes we make while
speaking?
4)SELF-MONITORING
Self-monitoring at the conceptualization
stage:
may result in the abandonment of the
message.
Self-monitoring at the formulation stage:
may result in a slowing down or a pause and
the subsequent backtracking and re-phrasing
of an utterance.
Self-monitoring at the articulation stage:
results in the kind of corrections that fluent
speakers have to make when sth. happens.
*NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR SPEECH
PRODUCTION:
Fluency
Automaticity
What are the features of fluency?
- the speed
- infrequent pauses
- pauses occur at meaningful transition points
- long runs of syllables and words between
pauses - using pause fillers (productio
What is needed to achieve any degree of
fluency?
o some degree of automaticity
How can automaticity be achieved?
o through the use of prefabricated chunks.
o Through discourse level procedures (taking
turns- avoidance of long silences)
o Through practice
*MANAGING TALK:
Interaction:
What are the main characteristics of an
interaction?
o information gap
o choice
o feedback
Turn taking:
How does a speaker signal his/her
conversational intentions?
By using conversational discourse markers.
Discourse marker signals a speaker’s conversational
intentions. It lets other speakers know what your
intentions are.
Typical discourse markers for managing turn-taking
include:
that reminds me (= I’m continuing the same topic)
by the way (= I’m indicating a topic change)
well anyway (= I’m returning to the topic)
like I say (= I’m repeating what I said before)
yes, but(= I’m indicating a difference of opinion)
yes no I know(- I’m indicating agreement with a
negative idea)
uh-huh (= I’m listening)
Paralinguistics:
Negotiation of speaking turns does not rely on words
alone. The interactional use of eye gaze and gesture
are known as paralinguistics.
SPEAKING AS KNOWLEDGE (What does a
speaker know?)
1) Extralinguistic knowledge
topic and cultural knowledge (common
experience and background about the topic
and culture)
knowledge of the context (reference to the
immediate context)
familiarity with the other speakers ( relation
between the speakers and the degree of
shared knowledge)
Sociocultural knowledge
*In X country, long silences are tolerated in
conversations
*In Y country, you don’t normally ask people
why they are not married
Knowledge about social values and the norms
of a behavior in a given society.
Certain speech events such as greetings,
requests, or apologies, may differ in different
social groups.
2) Linguistic knowledge
Genre knowledge (type of speech event)
How is the structure of a genre determined?
Purpose of speaking: There are two main
functions of speaking:
transactional function – the primary
purpose is to convey information and
facilitate the exchange of goods or
services;
interpersonal function – aim is to
establish and maintain social
relations.
Interactive vs. Non-interactive
Planned vs. Unplanned
E.g. (Speaking genres)
Airport announcements
Sports commentary
Job interview
Service Encounte
Casual conversation
Discourse knowledge
Knowing how to organize and
connect individual utterances,
how to map this knowledge on to the
turn-taking structures of interactive
talk
How to use discourse markers
The use of discourse markers is
important in;
the fluid management of interactive
talk
signaling one’s intentions,
holding the conversational turn,
marking the boundaries in a talk.
Pragmatic knowledge ( relation between
language and its contexts of use, purpose of
use)
Speech acts (function)
The co-operative principle (co-operation
between speaker and interlocutor)
-Quantity-informative as required
-Quality- true knowledge
-Relation-Relevant knowledge
-Manner- Brief and orderly speaking (no
obscurity and ambiguity)
Politeness (Please, thank you, etc.)
Register (Formality degree? Formal?
Informal? TENOR-FIELD- MODE)
Grammar Knowledge
WRITTEN GRAMMAR SPOKEN GRAMMAR
Sentence-based Clause-based (Minimal planning)
Embedding(Subordination) Co-ordination (Add-on strategy)
Subject+ Verb +Object Head + Body + Tail
Reported Speech Direct Speech
Precision Vagueness
Little Ellipsis A lot of Ellipsis
No question tags Many question tags
No performance effects Performance effects (audible effects of realtime processing)
-hesitation
-Repeats
-False starts
-Incompletion
-Syntactic Blends
*Other difference between written and spoken grammar: distribution of particular language
items
Vocabulary Knowledge
Discourse markers
Words/Expressions that express
speaker’s attitude (stance)
Speakers also employ a lot of words
and expressions that express positive
or negative appraisal.
Deictic Expres
Chunks
Speakers also make use of chunks
(also called as lexical phrases,
holophrases, formulaic language, and
prefabricated chunks.)
Phonology Knowledge
Pronunciation, stress, and
intonation.
SPEECH CONDITIONS:
COGNITIVE FACTORS
Familiarity with the topic
Familiarity with the genre
Familiarity with the interlocutors
Processing Demands
AFFECTIVE (EMOTIONAL) FACTORS
Feelings towards the topic/ the
participants
Self-consciousness
PERFORMANCE FACTORS
Planning and rehearsal time
Time pressure
Environmental conditions
Degree of collaboration
Discourse control
Mode of speaking
*COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES:
Strategic competence is achieved by means of what
are called communication strategies.
Some common communication strategies are:
- circumlocution: such as I get a red in my head to
mean shy - word coinage: such as vegetarianist for vegetarian
- foreignizing a word: warmer instead of heater
- approximation improvising): using an alternative,
related word, such as using work table
for “workbench” - using an all-purpose word: such as stuff, thing,
make, do - language switch: using the L1 word or expression
(also called code-switching) - paralinguistics: using gesture, mime, and so on, to
convey the intended meaning - appealing for help, e.g. by leaving an utterance
incomplete:
Speaker 1: The taxi driver get angry, he lose his, erm,
how you say?
Speaker 2: temper
Speaker 1: he lose his temper and he shout me.
avoidance strategy (discarding) : such as
abandoning the message altogether or replacing the
original message with one that is less ambitious.
discourse strategy is the wholesale borrowing
by the speaker of segments of other speakers’
utterances, often in the form of unanalyzed units, as in
this instance:
Speaker 1: When did you last see your brother?
Speaker 2: Last see your brother six years ago …
A related discourse strategy is the repetition of one’s
own previous utterance:
Speaker 1: The woman hear a noise …
Speaker 2: What kind of noise?
Speaker 1: The woman hear a noise, loud one …
!!! These strategies help to create illusion
!!! BUT long term use of these strategies may affect
the learner’s developing language system
(fossilization and lack of linguistic competence –
developing only strategic competence)
Is the lesson sequence for receptive skills
adequate for productive skills as well?
Nooo
What are the new stages for teaching
speaking?
*THE STAGES OF TEACHING SPEAKING
PROCESS:
Awareness raising:
Learners need to be aware of features of the target
language.
Appropriation:
Learners need to integrate these features into their
existing knowledge.
Autonomy:
Learners need to develop the capacity to mobilize
these features under real-time conditions and
unassisted.
1) AWARENESS-RAISING:
To raise the awareness of the student. Awareness
activities have dual function:
o Discovering knowledge gaps
o Filling these knowledge gaps
How is this function fulfilled?
Awareness involves at least three processes:
a)Attention(help the students to get interested,
involved and curious)
It is drawing students’ attention to the target
language feature
Students should be alert: interested, involved and
curious.
b)Noticing (help the students notice the language
feature)
It is conscious registering of the occurrence of
something.
Noticing is likely to take place :
o If the target language feature is salient (because
of its frequency, size, significance, or
usefulness among other things)
o If it has already been pointed out,
o If it is surprising
What are the techniques for noticing?
- Identifying
- Counting
- Classifying
- Matching
- Connecting
- Comparing and contrasting
- Fill in the gaps in a transcript
What are the tools/materials to use for
attention & noticing?
Live listening:
- Anecdotes (usually having a
humorous or unusual outcome) told
by the teacher - A guest speaker
Recordings & tapescripts (texts)
c)Understanding(help them to recognize a
It is recognizing a general rule or principle or
pattern.
Understanding is more likely if there are several
instances of the item.
2) APPROPRIATION:
Collaborative construction of Behavior +
Mental Process
Appropriation Activities:
These activities :
o help the students practice the skill,
o help the students take over the ownership of the
practiced language feature, by providing practiced
control,
Not controlled practice!!!
What is the difference between controlled
practice and practiced control?
Controlled practice: repetitive practice of
language items in conditions where the possibility
of making mistakes is minimized. Mainly drilling
Practiced control: involves demonstrating
progressive control of a skill where possibility of
making mistakes is ever present but where
support is always at hand.
Suggested Activities for Appropriation?
(Some of these activities are mentioned in your
book, but the others are extra ones out of your
syllabus. Be careful! )
- Drilling: imitating and repeating words, phrases
and even the whole utterance.
Advantage:
o It helps with gaining control over language.
o It is a way for fine tuning for articulation.
o Help in the storing & retrieving of the chunks as
whole units. - Chants
o Playful form of practice
o Contextualized and more meaningful form of
drilling
o E.g. Divide the class into two groups.
o One group chants the problem, the other group
chants the advice. - Milling activities:
o more communicative way of providing repetitive
practice
o How?
o E.g. Students walk around the class to ask the
same question to other learners with a view to
completing a survey.
o In groups a person states a problem given by the
teacher & asks for advice to different students. - Dialogues:
o Interaction taking place between two people
o Sts. Work in pairs
o How are the dialogue activities designed?
o Dialogues:
Dialogues can be presented in full text. (Sts.
act their parts – Sts. are given roles)
Jumbled dialogue can be given. –Sts. put it
into order & then act out)
After the taped dialogue is listened to, &
repeated through different activities T. writes
some cue words on board & sts. try to act out
the dialogue using the cues.
Dialogues using cue-cards
These are examples of info-gap activities
Different amounts of information can be given on
the cue cards depending on the readiness level of
the students
o Dialogue activities using cue-cards: - no choice cue cards
- one-sided choice cue cards
- two-sided choice cue cards
- Manipulation drills:
parts of a sentence is given and students are
expected to form sentences using good intonation - Casting conversations: Students are expected to
form conversations based on the given context and
justify their choice. Talking about their choice will help
them - Substitution: In a given dialogue target phrases
are underlined and students are required to replace
these phrases with another one with similar function. - Faded dialogues (Incomplete dialogues):
Students fill in the blanks in a given dialogue using
appropriate phrases. - Paper conversation: Students write down the
dialogue instead of talking.
3) AUTONOMY :
To maximize speaking opportunities and increase
the chances that learners will experience
autonomous language use.
To achieve this, the following conditions need to
be met: - Productivity
- Purposefulness
- Interactivity
- Challenge
- Safety
- Authenticity
Suggested activities for Autonomy?
Presentation and talks
Stories, Jokes and anecdotes
Drama, Role-play and simulation Conversation
and chat (open/close pairwork)
Outside-class speaking activities
Discussions and debates
o Buzz groups: these can be used for
a whole range of discussions. For example,
we might want students to predict the content
of a reading text, or we may want them to talk
about
their reactions to it after they have read it.
o Instant comment: another way in
which we can train students to respond
fluently and
immediately is to insert ‘instant comment’
mini-activities into lessons. This involves
showing them photographs or introducing
topics at any stage of a lesson and
nominating
students to say the first tiling that comes
into their head.
o Formal debates: in a formal debate,
students prepare arguments in favor or
against various propositions. In order for
debates to be successful, students need to
be given time to plan their arguments, often
in groups. A popular debate game is
“balloon debate”.
o Unplanned discussion: Some
discussions just happen in the middle of
lessons; they are
unprepared for by the teacher, but, if
encouraged, can provide some of the most
enjoyable
and productive speaking in language
classes.
o Reaching a consensus: One of the
best ways of encouraging discussion is to
provide activities which force students to
reach a decision or a consensus, often as a
result of choosing between specific
alternatives.
What are teacher’s roles in a speaking lesson?
PROMPTER
PARTICIPANT
FEEDB